The Jungle Book
The Jungle Book, collection of stories by English writer Rudyard Kipling, published in 1894. A sequel, The Second Jungle Book, was published in 1895. The stories in both books, mostly set in India, are linked by poems and often tell of Mowgli, an Indian boy who is raised by wolves and learns self-sufficiency and wisdom from the jungle animals.
Setting
Kipling, who was born in British India in 1865 and later spent seven years there working as a journalist, first published the stories that became The Jungle Book in a magazine after leaving India about 1890. They were later collected into book form. He set many of the tales in a forest in India; the name “Seeonee” (possibly referring to the area around the city of Seoni) is frequently mentioned, as is the Wainganga River—both are part of the modern state of Madhya Pradesh. The national parks of Kanha and Pench are spread across the forests near Seoni and are now marketed as “Kipling country”; there is, however, no evidence to show that Kipling ever visited the area. Modern scholarship suggests that the setting was originally the Aravalli Range of what is now Rajasthan state. Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan are both known for having diverse wildlife and significant tiger populations.
Characters
Much of the book describes the social life of the wolf pack and, more fancifully, the justice and natural order of life in the jungle. Most of the stories feature Mowgli and the animals he lives with or encounters; others relate the tales of Rikki-tikki-tavi the mongoose, Kotick the fur seal, and a boy called Toomai.
The Mowgli stories include the following characters:
- Mowgli, a human child raised by wolves
- Baloo, a bear who teaches Mowgli the laws of the jungle
- Bagheera, a black panther and Mowgli’s mentor and protector
- Akela, a wolf who leads Mowgli’s pack
- Shere Khan, a boastful Bengal tiger and Mowgli’s mortal enemy
- Kaa, a wise but feared python, also one of Mowgli’s mentors
- Tabaqui, a jackal and Shere Khan’s obsequious servant
- The Bandar-log, a tribe of irresponsible monkeys
- Hathi, chief of the elephants and keeper of the jungle law
Other characters include Raksha, the wolf who raises Mowgli; Rama, the father wolf; and Gray Brother, the oldest of the wolf cubs. Most of the names above are derived from species nomenclature in Hindi.
Stories
The Jungle Book is divided, variously, into songs and chapters. Each chapter contains a standalone story, introduced by a short poem. The stories are largely fables with a moral woven into the narrative. “Mowgli’s Brothers,” “Kaa’s Hunting,” and “Tiger! Tiger!” follow the adventures of Mowgli. In “Rikki-Tikki-Tavi,” the eponymous mongoose chases a pair of scheming cobras from a house occupied by the human family with whom he lives and kills them. “The White Seal” recounts how Kotick found a safe haven for other seals being hunted by Bering islanders. The village boy Toomai sees a herd of elephants “dance” in “Toomai of the Elephants.” A group of working animals in service to the army tell of their lives and responsibilities in “Her Majesty’s Servants.”
A famous poem from The Jungle Book is titled “Night-Song in the Jungle”:
Now Rann the kite brings home the night
That Mang the Bat sets free—
The herds are shut in byre and hut,
For loosed till dawn are we.
This is the hour of pride and power,
Talon and tush and claw.
Oh, hear the call!—Good hunting all
That keep the Jungle Law!
In some editions the kite in the poem is named Chil (Hindi: “kite”).
Some stories in The Second Jungle Book also feature Mowgli and several animal characters from the first volume. Other stories tell of an argument between a crocodile, a jackal, and a stork; of a politician who becomes an ascetic; and of a pair of Inuit teenagers who set out on a quest to find food for their tribe.
Themes
Kipling explores in the books a variety of themes and issues, including abandonment and fostering, coming of age, interpersonal relationships, human-animal conflict and dynamics, the rule of law (and the consequences of transgressions), and social hierarchies. The stories also emphasize the value of freedom, loyalty, and courage. However, Kipling’s imperialist views have been subjected to contemporary criticism, and his reputation as a writer suffered because of his conviction that European culture was required to civilize those he considered heathen natives. Much of modern commentary regards The Jungle Book as an allegory about British colonialism in India.
Adaptations
The Jungle Book has been adapted several times for film and television, perhaps most famously as an animated Disney musical film (1967), featuring Mowgli and related characters. The film, much lighter and more endearing than its somewhat grim source material, bears very little resemblance in tone and intensity to the book. The original premise of Mowgli’s life in the jungle is retained but punctuated with comic elements; characters such as Tabaqui do not appear, and new characters are introduced, among them King Louie, the orangutan leader of the Bandar-log. The film also changed the personalities of some of the animals; Kaa, for instance, was turned from a wise and fearsome snake into something of a ridiculous figure plagued by sinus trouble.
In the 21st century the animated film came under criticism for its allegedly racist undertones, particularly with regard to the portrayal of King Louie. Disney released a live-action version of the animated film in 2016, featuring an all-star voice cast including Bill Murray, Ben Kingsley, Christopher Walken, Scarlett Johansson, Idris Elba, and Lupita Nyong’o.
A Hollywood film titled Elephant Boy (1937), starring the Indian-born American actor Sabu, is based on the story “Toomai of the Elephants.” “Rikki-Tikki-Tavi” has been adapted several times, perhaps most notably in 1975 by American director Chuck Jones as an animated television special narrated by Orson Welles.